Combat culture: An Indian history of martial arts

Editor’s note: India is home to glorious traditions of martial arts practice. These techniques of combat are graceful, physical and linked closely to mental discipline and spiritual thought. In the first part of this wonderful two-part series, MAP Academy introduces you to Chhau from East India, Mardaani Khel of the Deccan, and Kalaripayattu from the South. 

This article originally appeared on the MAP Academy website. All images that appear with the MAP Academy articles are sourced from various collections around the world, and due image credits can be found on the original article on the MAP Academy website. The MAP Academy is a non-profit online educational platform committed to building equitable resources for the study of art histories from South Asia. 

Traditional Indian martial arts combine physical skill with mental discipline and spiritual thought. Varying in style and technique across regions, they often form part of the ceremonial and ritualistic practices of a community and are significant in shaping cultural identity. Most Indian martial arts utilise weapons, though typically not specialised ones but versatile tools such as wooden staffs and clubs; a variety of blades in the form of daggers, swords and spears; or the bow and arrow, as in the thoda tradition from Himachal Pradesh.

The complexity of the rules of traditional martial arts and the intricacy of their movement sequences generally limit the use of these forms in practical combat and make them akin to dance; some, such as chhau from eastern India, also have a dramatic component. However, certain traditional forms have had application in war, such as pari-khanda from Jharkhand, which was used for training soldiers in using the sword and shield, and mardaani khel, a Marathi martial art that played a major role in directing the Maratha army’s military formations.

Throughout the nineteenth century, the British colonial government made certain martial arts illegal, such as kalaripayattu from Kerala and the Meiti practice of thang-ta, pushing many of these traditions to near-extinction. They were kept alive through secret tutelage, orally transmitted community knowledge and, in some cases, written instructions, allowing them to re-emerge after the end of colonial rule in the subcontinent.

Initially restricted to particular regions, many martial arts have spread to other regions both nationally and globally as instructors have taught or set up studios elsewhere in the contemporary period. Since the 1990s, institutions have been established to regulate the form and quality of instruction, as well as preserve traditional methods. These include the Indian Kalaripayattu Federation, the National Gatka Association of India and the World Silambam Federation. A variety of government-supported programmes and private tutors also make these traditions accessible to the general public.

From the East: Chhau

A folk performance form that incorporates martial arts and dance-drama elements, chhau is performed in the states of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal. Each state has distinct styles of chhau—Seraikela chhau in Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj chhau in Odisha and Purulia chhau in West Bengal. Chhau performances originally took place during the spring festival of Chaitra Parva in April, which celebrates the deities Shiva and Shakti in the Ardhanarishwara form. Over the last few decades, it has begun to be performed throughout the year.

The origins of the word “chhau” are debated. Possible sources include the Odia words chhauni (military camp), chhauka (checking something stealthily) and chhauri (armour), suggesting that it may derive from military practices. Another possibility is that the word is derived from the Sanskrit word chhayi, meaning shadow, illusion or image, referring to the use of masks in some forms of chhau. The Odia words chhabi (picturesque), chhai and chhatak (clowning) have also been suggested as possible origins.

Until the end of the twentieth century, only men would participate in and perform chhau, but women performers have become more visible since. These individuals are organised into troupes, which move in search of work. Mayurbhanj and Purulia chhau are performed primarily by members of Scheduled Castes, whereas Seraikela is primarily performed under royal patronage by men from the Kshatriya (warrior) caste.

Chhau emphasises footwork and the movement of the entire body, rather than mudras. Instead, chhau performers’ hands are held tightly in fists or kept open, imitating the grasping of a sword and shield. Instruments typically used include the mahuri (a conical double-reed pipe), dhol (a percussion instrument), nagara (a large drum played with wooden sticks), dhumsa (a kettle-shaped single-headed drum), and chadchadi (a flat percussion drum).

The narratives of chhau are borrowed from Puranic texts, and epics such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana. A single performance generally lasts for about forty-five minutes to an hour, and includes different episodes or stories. If multiple troupes are performing, such as during a village festival, performances last for four or five hours. The performative repertoire consists of stylised movements to depict action only through the feet, known as uflis, as well as nature-inspired bodily movements depicting animals and birds, known as challis and topkas. Other standard movements include the baagh chaali (tiger walk), mayur chaali (peacock walk) and khel (variations on ufli and swordplay). The forms are not derived from a text, with the traditions and forms passed on generationally within troupes.

Chhau troupes may be grouped into overarching schools within the three broad regional styles.These include Uttara Sahi and Dakshin Sahi within Mayurbhanj chhau, and Bazar Sahi and Brahmin Sahi for Seraikala chhau. All three styles of chhau are believed to derive their movement elements from the martial arts practice of parikhanda, wherein pari denotes shield and khanda denotes sword. 

A distinguishing feature between the styles is the use of masks. Both Seraikela and Purulia chhau incorporate masks in their performances, whereas Mayurbhanj chhau does not. This means that Mayurbhanj chhau uses both facial expressions and bodily movements to express emotion in dance drama sequences, while Seraikela and Purulia chhau emphasise bodily gestures as the performers’ faces are covered with masks. Seraikela and Mayurbhanj chhau both received considerable royal patronage over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which impacted their performative repertoire. Purulia chhau, in comparison, retains influences from the martial arts from which chhau may derive.

As a dance form, Seraikela chhau is deeply influenced by its usage of masks which constrain the movement of the performer. It thus emphasises subtle movements of the neck (known as grieve bheda) and the head (siro bheda). Though light, the mask makes it difficult for the performer to breathe and thus restricts the length of a typical Seraikela chhau to no more than ten minutes. The basic stance is known as dharan, wherein the knees are bent and both feet turned outwards with the left foot in the front. The body weight typically rests on both legs. Seraikela chhau is usually practiced in solo performances, with some duets and troupe performances. Though most of the performers are men, eighteen of the standard thirty-six feet movements in Seraikella chhau represent the everyday routines of women. 

Some popular dances within this style dances include ratri (night), depicting a playful game between the moon and the night; sabar (hunter), in which a hunter is depicted waiting for his prey; mayur (peacock), wherein the dancer evokes the bird through elaborate neck and upper body movement; astra danda (martial art movements) and Radha-Krishna (playful dance representing the god Krishna and his consort).

Seraikela chhau gained immense popularity under the aegis of Kumar Bijay Pratap Singh Deo of the Seraikela royal family, who choreographed and performed this style of chhau in a form that has continued to the presentas it is recognised in its present form. He also promoted the form internationally by taking the chhau dancers for a tour to Europe in 1938, cementing its contemporary position as one of Jharkhand’s foremost performing arts. It was under his patronage that women first began to perform chhau, joining his troupe on their Europe tour; women have been part of Seraikela chhau troupes since.

Purulia chhau incorporates acrobatic and energetic movements accompanied by elaborate masks representing gods and demons from Hindu mythology. The narratives tend to focus on episodes of combat from the Puranas, depicted using athletic skills. Popular dances include Mahishasura Badha, depicting the defeat of the demon Mahishasura by the goddess Durga and Ravana Badha, a duel between Rama and Ravana characterised by the use of high-pitched sound and vigorous movement. The performances typically begin with a song to Ganesha, followed by a rousing call to action for the dancers. Purulia chhau is traced to the work of the twentieth-century dancer Gambhir Singh Mura, who contributed significantly to the choreography and forms that the dance is recognised with today.

Mayurbhanj chhau divides its performative elements into movements depicting birds and animals, along with thirty-six feet movements. The execution of these movements, however, differ from Seraikella chhau. Mayurbhanj dancers adopt the basic stance from the tribhangi (standing position) from Odissi, with the body weight resting on one leg. The dancers also emphasise their upper body movements more than in Seraikella chhau.

The movements can be categorised into three types—Kalibhanga or delicate, lyrical movements; Hatiyardhara or forceful, masculine movements and Kalikata, which combines the two. The absence of masks in this form allows for more acrobatic movement. Some significant dances include the solo dance Nataraja, represented by dancers from the Uttara Sahi tradition, depicting the god Shiva. The Dandi dance is performed by dancers from the Dakshina Sahi tradition, and is based on the Upanayana or sacred thread ceremony.

Mayurbhanj chhau traces its origins to the masked Ram-Leela performances of the Baripada district in Odisha, and also incorporated influences from the Seraikella chhau. Scholars have also suggested similarities to ritualistic dances by the Santhal community, a tribe residing across much of east-central India. During the reign of Maharaja Jadunath Bhanja in the mid-nineteenth century, one Madan Singh Bapu from Baripada combined music from Ram-Leela with that of chhau. Master performers Upendra Biswal and Banamali Das were then brought into the region to train dancers, leading to the creation of the two schools of Uttara Sahi and Dakshin Sahi. After the annexation of princely states in the region following the independence of India, royal patronage ceased, adversely impacting Mayurbhanj chhau.

The state government of Orissa (now Odisha) extended patronage to chhau from the 1950s by establishing annual grants and through the establishment of training centres. Chaitra Parva, the spring festival, generally includes chhau performances in Odisha, and many Chaitra Parva celebrations receive state support as well. The Sangeet Natak Akademi runs special training centres for chhau dancers. Chhau was recognised as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2010.

From the Deccan: Mardaani Khel

Originating in the Indian Deccan region, mardaani khel was a popular armed martial art form within the Maratha regime. Popularised by Chhatrapati Shivaji, the art form involves several weapons and was an important part of the war tactics employed by the Marathas along with ganimi kava or guerrilla warfare. It is performed by both men and women.

Some of the weapons used in the mardaani khel include the dand-patta, a double-edged flexible sword measuring up to three feet with a covered handle that extends upto the wrist and, sometimes, up to the elbow. It is normally moved horizontally due to its flexible blade. 

Another weapon is the bhala, or spear, consisting of a six-foot long stick with a pointed metal arrow at one hand, which is used in movements very similar to the lathi (stick). A weapon that was developed resembling the spear, but one that allowed attacks over longer distances was the vita. Also consisting of a six-foot long stick, with a two-foot long pointed metal piece on one end and a six-foot long rope on the other to be coiled around the hand, the vita could be flung over a distance of about ten feet and retracted with the use of the rope. 

Yet another weapon developed as a part of this art form is the maduvu, a weapon made of two deer horns, both pointing outwards with a grip in the centre. A much smaller yet equally fatal weapon was the bagh nakh, a contraption resembling a tiger's claws that could be worn on the fingers and consisted of pointed claw-like bits on the palm. And finally, the dhop, a four-foot long sword that was different from the regular three-foot-long sword, that was a compulsory weapon to be carried by all soldiers in Shivaji's army.

Since the art-form has evolved from real war tactics, the formations and movements take multiple opponents into consideration and account for attacks from multiple directions. This is reflected in formations where the players go back-to-back securing a 360-degree view of the opponents. Women performers wear the Nauvari saree and the men wear mandchol, a thigh-length tunic with knee-length breeches. Additionally, they wear a headdress called mundasa and leather mojaris.

The popularity of mardaani khel fell considerably after the British invasion and the introduction of the Arms Act (1878). Therefore, to ensure the art form’s survival, senior practitioners, known as vastads, turned it into a folk game which in the present day is performed as a part of cultural festivals and sports programmes. Presently, there are training centres in Pune, Kolhapur and Mumbai where the art of mardaani khel is taught.

From the South: Kalaripayattu

Believed to have originated in the third century BCE, kalaripayattu is an armed martial art used for self-defence and is indigenous to the state of Kerala. Kalaripayattu is composed of two words, kalari means “place of combat” and payattu means “fighting” in Malayalam. Practitioners of the art form credit the Hindu saint Parashurama with founding the art form and consider him to be its first teacher or gurukkal. 

Broadly, the art-form is divided into four stages with each stage including a technique, and the form does not follow a grading system that ranks students on the basis of seniority. The first stage, the meipayattu, involves various stretching exercises and jumping movements. The next stage is kolthari, where students are taught fighting techniques with the use of sticks. The wooden sticks, known as kettukari, are usually thin bamboo poles measuring six feet long. Other wooden weapons used in this stage include the viada (two-headed club), cheruvati (short, heavy stick) and lastly the ottakol (curved wooden weapon, with a club at one end). 

In the angathari stage, weapons made of unbending metal are used including the kattaram (dagger for duels at short range), sword and shield. The last stage, verumkaiprayoga, involves instruction in fighting without tools or weapons. Several of these movements are modelled on animals such as the horse, serpent, rooster or tiger, amongst several others, inspired by the forests of Kerala that form a vast part of the state’s landscape. 

Additionally, there are mainly two main styles of kalaripayattu: vadakkan or the northern style predominant in the Malabar region which emphasises graceful body movements and the weaponry and the thekken or the southern style, practised mainly in the Travancore region, involving free armed techniques and movements.

The training normally begins with an oil massage that is seen as an important part of the training of the art form, followed by prostration in front of the teacher and deities installed at an altar in the western corner of the kalari, known as a puttara. The number of deities can vary between seven and twenty-one. 

The main goddess of kalari is considered to be Bhagavathi, a form of the goddess Durga, and Para Devathai, a god that embodies both Shiva and Parvati. The kalari usually measures 21 feet by 42 feet and is an enclosed pit that is covered on all sides. When not located within the house, it consists of a roof made of palm leaves supported with a bamboo frame. This provides it with an airless atmosphere that is considered suitable for training. The training of Kalaripayattu also includes training students in Ayurveda (ancient Indian medicine and healing system) and in locating the 108 vital points of the body, known as marma, which could be used in combat. 

The practice of Kalaripayattu has traditionally been passed on to students through vaythari or the oral commands, but it was only in 1936 that these oral instructions were written down and published followed by more descriptive writing starting around 1953. Art forms such as theyyam, parichamuttu, poorakkali, poikali or vela kali, have been inspired by movements of kalaripayattu. The Indian Kalaripayattu Federation (IKF) was established in 1995 to promote the art form and it conducts state-level competitions, national championships and the National Kalaripayattu Festival.

The MAP of Knowledge

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This article has been written by the research and editorial team at the MAP Academy. Through its free knowledge resources—Encyclopedia of Art, Online Courses, and Stories—the MAP Academy encourages knowledge building and engagement with the region's visual arts. Follow them on Instagram to learn more about art histories from South Asia.